Teaching & Research Knowledge Base (WIP)

Classroom Resource

Literature Review

Teaching Resource

Grammar Handbook – Detailed Editionb

Test Type

Both

Last Updated

Jul 18, 2025 04:00 PM

Chapter 0 Introduction 语法基础介绍

Part of Speech 词性

Noun名词	Nouns are words that used to identify any of a class of people, places, or things (common noun), or to name a particular one of these (proper noun).
Pronoun代词	Pronouns are words that take the place of or refer to specific nouns, other pronouns, or phrases. Subject Pronouns 主语代词: I, you, he, she, it, we, they • The man chased the cat. ◦ He chased the cat.Object Pronouns 宾格代词 : • The cat is hiding from the man. ◦ The cat is hiding from him.Possessive Pronouns 物主代词: • The books belong to Jack and Hector. ◦ The books are theirs.Relative Pronouns 关系代词：who (whose, whom), which, thatwho (谁)whose (谁的)whom (谁，作宾语时使用)which (哪一个，指物)that (指人或物，常用于限定性定语从句)
Verb 动词	Verbs are words that used to describe an action, state, or occurrence.Action Verbs 动作动词: tell WHAT the subject is doing.1, Transitive Verb 及物动词： requires a direct object. • My dog chewed his toy.2, Intransitive Verb 不及物动词： does not take a direct object. • Michael smiled with relief.Linking Verbs 连系动词：describe or rename the subject:be, am, are, is, was, were, seem, appear, become, stay, sound, smell, taste, look, feel.
Adjective 形容词	Adjectives describe, identify, or further define nouns and pronouns.
Adverb副词	Adverbs describe a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs tell something about HOW.Adverbs describe verbs 副词修饰动词: • She spoke quietly. Adverbs describe adjectives 副词修饰形容词: • Those dogs are really big. Relative Adverbs 关系副词: where, when, whyConjunctive Adverbs 连接副词:Thereby, therefore, thereafter, nevertheless, nonetheless, however, hence, thus, then, also, even, moreover, as a result, in addition.
Preposition 介词	Prepositions are words that used to show direction, time, place, location, spatial relationships, or to introduce an object.At, about, across, among, along, after, before, by, for, in, of, on, near, with, from, about, around, under, below, behind, through, between, despite, like, via, including, plus, minus, besides, except, to （有的时候）.
Conjunction连词	Conjunctions are words that join parts of a sentence.Coordinating Conjunctions 并列连词 - words that join parts of equal importance: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So (FANBOYS)Subordinating Conjunctions 从属连词 - words which subordinate or make dependent:Because, since, as, for, so that, when, while, until, before, after, as soon as, once, as whereas, although, though, even if, even though, if, now that, unless.
Article冠词	Articles are used before nouns to add meaning. A, an, the.
Interjection感叹词	Interjections are words or expressions that are interjected into a grammatical sentence. Yes, not, aha, phooey, thanks, and so on.

Coordinating Conjunctions 并列连词

[FANBOYS]= For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So

Effective ways to use coordinating conjunctions:

SVO, [FANBOYS] SVO.

The ﬁgures at elite universities are enough to cause sticker shock; yet the current increases at many schools are the lowest in a decade.

When there is a parenthesis 插入语, to avoid confusion, we can use: SVO; [FANBOYS] SVO.

The ﬁgures at elite universities, particularly, are enough to cause sticker shock; yet the current increases at many schools are the lowest in a decade.

SVO. [FANBOYS] SVO.

Like paper or glass recycling, composting demands a certain amount of effort from the public in order to be successful. But the inconveniences of composting are far outweighed by its benefits. (OG8)

Subordinating Conjunctions 从属连词

Concession	Though/ although/ even though/ while
Time	After/ before/ as long as as / by the time / the moment once / since / till / until / when / whenever / while
Condition	If / only if / unless / provided that / assuming that / even if / in case that / lest
Comparison	Whereas / whether
Reason	Because / since / as / so that / in order that
Manner	As if / as though
Place	Where / wherever

Effective ways to use subordinating conjunctions. Take "when" as an example. (主句和从句)

When SVO, SVO.

SVO when SVO.

S, when SVO, VO.

Conjunctive Adverbs 连接副词

Accordingly	However	Nonetheless	Also
Indeed	Otherwise	Besides	Instead
Similarly	Consequently	Likewise	Still
Conversely	Meanwhile	Subsequently	Finally
Moreover	Then	Furthermore	Nevertheless
Therefore	Hence	Next	Thus

Effective ways to use conjunctive adverbs. Take "however" as an example.

SVO. However, SVO.

SVO. Introductory Element, however, SVO.

The projected cost of making needed repairs to bridges is no small issue for any municipal, county, state, or federal government agency. For the sake of the public's safety, however, repairs must be made. (2016/06)The projected cost of making needed repairs to bridges is no small issue for any municipal, county, state, or federal government agency. However, for the sake of the public's safety, repairs must be made. (2016/06)

SVO. S, however, VO.

The projected cost of making needed repairs to bridges is no small issue for any municipal, county, state, or federal government agency. For the sake of the public's safety, repairs, however, must be made. (2016/06)

SVO. SVO, however.

Not all research into regional English varieties requires such time, effort, and resources, however. (OG4)\However, not all research into regional English varieties requires such time, effort, and resources. (OG4)Not all research into regional English varieties, however, requires such time, effort, and resources. (OG4)

For adverbs of cause and effect, for example, " therefore, thus, thereby ".

SVO, therefore/thus/thereby doing.

Because it is more concentrated, Greek yogurt contains slightly more protein per serving, thereby helping people stay satiated for a long time.

When both clauses share the same subject: SVO and therefore VO.

Part of Sentence 句子成分

Element	Definition
Subject主语	The part of the sentence that tells "WHO" or "WHAT" the sentence is about. The subject is a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase.主语是句子中表示"谁"或"什么"的部分，句子的主语通常是名词、代词或名词短语。Simple Subject 简单主语: • Kate is a nice girl.Complete Subject 完整主语: • Jeffrey's poem about his mother made the class cry.Compound Subject 并列主语: • Paul and Tommy joined the soccer team at the same time.
ㅤ	ㅤ
Object宾语	The noun phrases that are included in the predicate.宾语是谓语中包含的名词短语，通常是接收动词动作的对象。跟在动词后面做动词的宾语：Direct objects 直接宾语 are the things being acted upon by the verb. ("WHAT") • He wrote a letter. (What does he write?) • The boy threw the ball. (What did the boy throw?)Indirect objects 间接宾语 include more information about the person or thing towards which the action is directed. ("WHO") • He wrote me a long letter. (Who did he write a letter to?) • The boy threw his mother the ball. (Who did he throw the ball to?)跟在介词后面做介词的宾语： • She is interested in art. • On the table.
ㅤ	ㅤ
Attributive Modifier定语	定语是修饰名词或代词的修饰语。定语提供了关于名词的更多信息，可以表示名词的特征、数量、性质等。前置定语（Adjectival Modifiers）：修饰名词，用形容词或形容词短语。Adjectival modifiers 形容词性修饰语 modify nouns and pronouns. • The blue boat sank. (The adjectival modifier blue modifies the subject boat) • A beautiful girl. • A used car. 后置定语（Postpositive Modifiers）：用介词短语、定语从句等修饰名词。 • A man with a book. • A person who received the money.
ㅤ	ㅤ
Appositive 同位语	同位语是用来进一步解释或描述名词的词或词组，它与所修饰的名词具有相同的指代对象，通常紧跟在名词后面。同位语可以是名词短语，也可以是一个名词从句，用来提供关于名词的额外信息。在名词后面，对名词进行解释： • My friend Lisa is coming over later. • Albert Einstein, a famous physicist, developed the theory of relativity.
ㅤ	ㅤ
Complement补语	A word or word group that completes the predicate in a sentence.补语是用来完成谓语的词或词组，它为句子的意思提供额外的解释或补充，通常跟在动词后面。Subject complements 主语补语 modify the subject by describing it further. 主语补语用来说明主语的状态或特征，通常通过形容词、名词或动词的过去分词来表达。 • The woman is blonde. • She is happy.Predicative Complement 表语表语通常跟系动词（如：is, are, was, were）一起使用，用来描述主语的状态或身份，常常是名词或形容词。 • He is a teacher. 主语补足语（主系表 SVC） • I am a mother.Object complements 宾语补语 modify the object of the sentence. They follow transitive verbs, which express action performed toward an object. 宾语补语用来补充说明宾语的特征、身份或状态，常用形容词、名词、动词不定式等。 • I named my son Carson. (The noun Carson complements the object son) 宾语补足语（SVOC） • The woman dyed her hair blonde. (The adjective blonde complements the object her hair)Verb Complement 动词补语动词补语用来完成某些动词的意义，通常是动词不定式、动名词或从句。 • She wants to leave. • I enjoy reading.

Basic Sentence Patterns 五种基本句型

SVO表示有一个完整的句子，但这个句子可以是任意的一种结构。【SVO.】表示一个句子只有一个SVO，是一个简单句。而【When SVO, SVO.】这个句子中有两个SVO，因此是一个复合句。一个句子中，SVO数量理论上是无限多的：

In what, as one reviewer put it, was "clearly intended to be a realistic novel," many reviewers perceived violations of the conventions of the realistic novel form, pointing out variously that late in the book, the narrator protagonist Cells and her friends are propelled toward a happy ending with more velocity than credibility, that the letters from Nettie to her sister Celie intrude into the middle of the main action with little motivation or warrant, and that the device of Celie's letters to God is especially unrealistic in as much as it forgoes the concretizing details that traditionally have given the epistolary novel (that is, a novel composed of letters) its peculiar verisimilitude: the ruses to enable mailing letters, the cache, and especially the letters received in return.

SV	Subject + Intransitive Verb	• I wake up. • Horses run.
SVO	Subject + Transitive Verb + Direct Object	• I love you. • She teaches English.
SVC	Subject + Linking Verb + Complement	• I am a student. • She looks happy.
SVoO	Subject + Transitive Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object	• I give you a book. • Mary lent John money.
SVOC	Subject + Transitive Verb + Direct Object + Object Complement	• I make you happy. • Mary considered Ana her friend.

Chapter 1 Subject-Verb Agreement 主谓一致

Basic Rules

When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.

She and her friends are at the fair.

When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.

The book or the pen is in the drawer.

When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb. 就近原则

The boy or his friends run every day.His friends or the boy runs every day.

Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.

One of the boxes is open.The people who listen to that music are few.The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.

The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.

Each of these hot dogs is juicy.Everybody knows Mr. Jones.Either is correct.

Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.

Note: The word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.

The news is on at six.Five dollars is a lot of money.Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.

Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two parts to these things.)

These scissors are dull.Those trousers are made of wool.

In sentences beginning with "there is" or "there are," the subject follows the verb. Since "there" is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.

There are many questions.There is a question.

Collective nouns can be singular or plural. Collective nouns like "team," "company," "city," "state," "government," "committee," and "store" are singular nouns and thus take singular verbs. Collective nouns like "team members," "company leaders," and "city officials" are plural and thus take plural verbs.

The team runs during practice.The committee decides how to proceed.The family has a long history.My family has never been able to agree.The crew is preparing to dock the ship.

Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well do not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.

The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to India.All of the books, including yours, are in that box.

Expression with " of "

" a A of B" , " the A of B " 主语是A，"of B" 是后置定语修饰A。

" A's B "主语是B 。

不定代词 "many of", "some of", "a third of" depend on whether they connect with singular/uncountable nouns or countable nouns.

Collecting noun phrases (a bunch of, a group of, a set of, etc.) take a singular verb.

A set of 12 dishes is all you need for the dinner party.

The expression "the number of" is followed by a singular verb while the expression "a number of" (meaning a lot of) is followed by a plural verb.

A number of students are absent.The number of students is large.

"They Each" & "Each of Them"

The subject of "they each" is "they" and it takes a plural verb.

The subject of "each of them" is "each" and it takes a singular verb.

Inverted Sentence 倒装句

What is inverted sentence?

Inversion means putting the predicate (verb) before the subject (noun or pronoun).

Sentence in the natural order

The cat meows softly.

Sentence in the inverted order

Softly meows the cat.

Interrogative sentences are usually in the inverted order:

What time is it? Is： predicate verb It： subject pronounHow do you set the alarm o'clock? Do：auxiliary verb You：subject pronoun Set：main verb

Auxiliary 助动词 (have, do, be) and modal verbs 情态动词 (can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must) can occur in subject-verb inversion whereas main verbs 动词 cannot.

She has finished her homework.Has she finished her homework?He does his work every day.Does he do his work every day?They are coming to the party.Are they coming to the party?She can speak French.Can she speak French?

Conditional sentences 虚拟语气 express factual situations or hypothetical and their consequences.

If you had apologized, I would have forgiven you. Had you apologized, I would have forgiven you. If I were there, I would have helped him. Were I there, I would have helped him. If you should need clarification, please contact me.Should you need clarification, please contact me.

When do we use inversion?

Types of inversion	倒装形式	ㅤ
There be	完全	• There are, according to my doctor, many courses of treatment available to me.
表语前置	完全	• Less amusing is the cowbirds' habit of laying their eggs in the nests of their birds.
Only+状语放句首否定词放句首(never/rarely/hardly)Not only 放句首(not only倒装，but also不到装)	部分	Starting a sentence with a negative adverb or adverb phrase. (Hardly, never, rarely, only then, not only... but, little, in no way.) • Only then did I understand why the tragedy had happened. • Seldom have I seen such beautiful work. • Hardly had I got into bed when the telephone rang. • Not only does he love chocolate and sweets, but he also smokes.In the following expressions, the inversion comes in the second part of the sentence: (Not until, only after, only by.) • Not until I saw John with my own eyes did I really believe he was safe. • Only after I'd seen her flat did I understand why she wanted to live there. • Only by working extremely hard could we afford to eat.
地点状语放句首	完全	Put an adverbial expression of place at the beginning on the sentence. • On the table was all the money we had lost. • Round the corner came the knights. • At one side of the square stands the old church.
come类动词	完全	• Here comes the bus.
so + adjective...that	部分	• So beautiful was the girl that nobody could talk about anything else. • So delicious was the food that we ate every last bite.

Practice:

Invert the following sentences:

1, John had never been to such a fantastic restaurant.

2, I in no way want to be associated with this project.

3, They had no sooner eaten dinner than the ceiling crashed onto the dining table.

4, We would understand what had happened that night only later.

5, Tony was not only late, but he had left all his books behind.

Answers:

1, Never had John been to such a fantastic restaurant.

2, In no way do I want to be associated with this project.

3, No sooner had they eaten dinner than the ceiling crashed onto the dining table.

4, Only later would we understand what had happened that night.

5, Not only was Tony late, but he had left all his books behind.

Chapter 2 Tense, Mood, and Voice 动词时态

Tense/ aspect chart 时态总谱

Aspects of the Present Tense

The present tense is combined with four traditional aspects to form the structures that are known as the present simple, the present continuous (or present progressive), the present perfect, and the present perfect continuous(or present perfect progressive).

1.1 Present Simple 一般现在时

表示习惯、事实或常态。

The present simple structure is used to express general facts and habits that are true in the present time. It is formed using the bare infinitive (the base form of the verb), or, in the case of the third person singular, the bare infinitive + "-s" or "-es."

We love Thai food.We study at the library every day.James swims on Sundays.

Present Continuous (or present progressive) 现在进行时

表示正在发生的动作或当前的状态。

The present continuous is the combination of the present tense with the continuous aspect. It is used for actions that are either in progress at the moment of speaking, or will be in progress in the near future. It is formed using the present form of the verb be (are, am, or is) + the present participle.

They're playing outside. (in progress now)Can I call you back? I'm driving. (in progress now)We're eating dinner with my in-laws tonight. (in progress in the future)

The continuous aspect is not usually used with stative verbs. For example, we cannot say "I am knowing John many years" or "She is seeming sad."

Present Perfect 现在完成时

表示某个动作已经发生，但与现在有关系或影响。

The present perfect is the combination of the present tense and the perfect aspect. It is used for actions or states that began in the past but have an effect on or relevance to the present, stressing the completion of the action. It is formed using have/has + the past participle.

She's already eaten.We've seen this movie.I've had a bad cold this week.

Present Perfect Continuous 现在完成进行时

表示动作从过去开始，一直持续到现在，并可能仍在进行中。

The present perfect continuous is the combination of the continuous and perfect aspects with the present tense. It is used for actions that began in the past and continue to have relevance in the present.

The main difference between it and the present perfect aspect is that the present perfect continuous aspect emphasizes the progress of the action instead of its completion. Like the present continuous, it is typically only used with action verbs, not with stative verbs. The present perfect continuous is formed using have/has + been + the present participle.

My little sister has been sitting very quietly.We have been waiting for a long time.I've been cleaning all day.

Aspect of the Past Tense

The past tense is combined with four traditional aspects to form the structures that are known as the past simple, the past continuous (or past progressive), the past perfect, and the past perfect continuous.

While the tense tells us when the action takes place in relation to the time (in this case, the past), the added aspect tells us how the event takes place in time.

Past Simple 一般过去时

表示过去某一时间点或某一段时间发生的动作或状态。

The past simple structure is used to express actions and events that were completed at a given moment in the past. Whether the occurrence is of short or long duration, the simple aspect emphasizes its completion. The past simple is formed by adding "-d" or "-ed" to the end of regular verbs, but the past form of irregular verbs must be memorized.

They lived next door to us for years. (regular)I locked myself out of the house this morning. (regular)We went to a private school when we were young. (irregular)

Past Continuous 过去进行时

表示过去某一时刻正在进行的动作。

The past continuous is the combination of the past tense with the continuous aspect. It emphasizes the progress of an action that occurred in the past, rather than its completion. It is often used for actions that are interrupted by other actions, and it is formed using the past form of the verb be (was/were) + the present participle.

They were playing outside when their father arrived.I'm sorry I didn't answer the phone; I was driving when you called.We were eating dinner when my in-laws told us the good news.

The past continuous usually occurs only with action verbs, not with stative verbs. For instance, we cannot say "I was knowing John many years" or "She was seeming sad."

Past Perfect 过去完成时

表示在过去某个时间点之前已经完成的动作。

The past perfect is the combination of the past tense with the perfect aspect. It is used for actions or states that began and were completed before another action in the past took place. It is formed using had + the past participle.

She had already eaten when she arrived.We had seen the movie, but we watched it again.I'd had a bad cold that week, but I went on my vacation anyway.

Past Perfect Continuous 过去完成进行时

表示某个动作在过去的某个时刻之前开始并持续了一段时间。

The past perfect continuous is the combination of the continuous and perfect aspects with the past tense. It is used for actions that took place before another past action. The main difference between it and the past perfect structure is that the past perfect continuous emphasizes the progress of the action instead of its completion. It is also used to emphasize the action's strong effect on another moment in the past. Like the past continuous, the past perfect continuous is generally only used with action verbs, not stative verbs. It is formed using had + been + the present participle.

We had been waiting for a long time when the bus finally came.My little sister had been sitting very quietly, but then she started to cry.I'd been cleaning all day, so I was too tired to go out last night.

Aspect of the Future Tense

Although English has no future tense in the strict sense (i.e., it has no verb form specific to future meaning), we commonly refer to several structures that are used for future meaning as belonging to the "future tense." The most common of these structures begin with will or a form of the verb be + going to.

I will go with you.I am going to send you an email.

While these verb markers tell us that the action takes place in the future, it is the aspect of the verb that tells us how the event will be temporally structured. The combination of the future marker and the aspect results in the verb structures that we usually call the future simple, the future continuous (or future progressive), the future perfect, and the future perfect continuous.

For the purpose of clarity, our example sentences will all use will, but it should be remembered that, in each of the examples, we can replace will with another modal verb of future meaning (shall, might, would, could, etc.) or with a form of be + going to.

Future Simple 一般将来时

表示将来某个时间发生的动作或状态。

The future simple structure is the combination of the future tense and the simple aspect. The future simple is used to express actions and events that will occur at a given moment in the future. The simple aspect emphasizes the action or state as a whole. The structure is formed using will + the base form of the verb (the infinitive without to).

They will move next door to us soon.We will go to a private school when we are older.I will be famous in the future.

Future Continuous 将来进行时

表示将来某一时刻正在进行的动作。

The future continuous structure is the combination of the future tense with the continuous aspect. It is used to express actions and events that will be in progress at a given moment in the future. The future continuous is formed using will + be + the present participle.

They will be playing outside when their father arrives.I won't answer my phone later because I'll be driving.We will be eating dinner at 7 o'clock.

Like other structures that reflect the continuous aspect, it is usually only used with action verbs, not with stative verbs. For example, we couldn't say "I will be knowing John later" or "She will be seeming sad this evening."

Future Perfect 将来完成时

表示到将来某一时刻为止完成的动作。

The future perfect is the combination of the future tense and the perfect simple aspect. It is used to express actions and events that will be completed at a given moment in the future. It is formed using will + have + the past participle.

She will have eaten before she arrives.We will have seen that movie already.I will have spent a lot of money after this weekend's festivities.

Future Perfect Continuous 将来完成进行时

表示某个动作到将来某时已经进行了一段时间。

Finally, the future perfect continuous is the combination of the perfect and continuous aspects with the future tense. It is used to emphasize that an action will be in progress until a given moment in the future, at which time the action will stop. Like the future continuous, it is typically not used with stative verbs, but only with action verbs. It is formed using will + have + been + the present participle.

My little sister will have been sitting quietly for an hour when the movie finishes.We will have been waiting for a long time when the bus finally comes.I will have been cleaning all day when you arrive, so I'll be too tired to go out.

时态的比较

一般现在时 🆚 现在完成时

一般现在时是对一种常态的描述，如果动作是一种状态，经常性发生的则用一般现在时。比如水的沸点是100摄氏度，在过去，未来，现在都是hold的。一般现在时的时间状语里常常有now，everyday等表示此刻或者现阶段重复性。

现在完成时强调动作已经做完了，或者过去做完的动作对此时此刻的影响。同时现在完成时这个动作和未来无关，动作在未来是否发生或者持续发生是不知道的。现在完成时一般都有一些从过去某一点到现在的时间状语，比如 from its begining, since last year, during the past decade, recently 等。

想不清楚的时候可以想这两句话：I eat breakfast. （我有吃早饭的习惯）I have eaten breakfast. （我今天吃早饭了）

现在完成时 🆚 一般过去时

Subordinate Clause

A subordinate clause is a clause that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence; it merely complements a sentence's main clause, thereby adding to the whole unit of meaning. Because a subordinate clause is dependent upon a main clause to be meaningful, it is also referred to as a dependent clause.

Whether you use the term subordinate or dependent to describe the clause, this clause's function is clear: It provides informational support to the main event of the sentence. This main clause will be independent: it can stand on its own as a complete sentence.

We can all go for ice cream.

This sentence is an independent clause. It has a subject and a verb, and on its own, it presents a complete unit of meaning: All of us are able to go out and have ice cream. (Hooray!)

But perhaps this isn't all we need to convey.

We can all go for ice cream if I can find my wallet.

On its own, if I can find my wallet is a subordinate clause; it is not a full unit of meaning. If it was written separately as a sentence, the result would be a sentence fragment.

❌ If I can find my wallet.

Words that begin subordinate clauses

Subordinate clauses will often begin with subordinating conjunctions, which are words that link dependent clauses to independent clauses, such as for, as, since, therefore, hence, consequently, though, due to, provided that, because, unless, once, while, when, whenever, where, wherever, before, and after.

They can also begin with relative pronouns such as that, which, who, whom, whichever, whoever, whomever, and whose. Spotting these words can tip you off that you are dealing with a subordinate clause rather than a main clause.

Knowing which clauses are main (independent) and which are subordinate (dependent) will help you organize your ideas and place your commas correctly. The best part is, it is actually quite simple. When a subordinate clause begins a sentence, it has a comma after it. When the main clause begins the sentence, there is no comma to separate it from the dependent clause.

❌ If I can find my wallet we can all go for ice cream.

❌ We can all go for ice cream, if I can find my wallet.

If I can find my wallet, we can all go for ice cream.

We can all go for ice cream if I can find my wallet.

Tenses in Subordinate Clauses

When the Verb in the Main Clause is in the _____________

1, Past or Past Perfect Tense

When the verb in the main clause is in the past or past perfect tense, the verb in the subordinate clause must be in the past or past perfect tense.

She said that she would go.

❌ She said that she will go.

He asked if I was interested in the offer.

❌ He asked if I am interested in the offer.

The phone rang while I was having a bath.

❌ The phone rang while I am having a bath.

2, Simple Present Tense

When the main clause is in the simple present tense, the subordinate clause can be in any tense.

Use present tenses in the subordinate clause to talk about an action that occurs at the same time.

Susie always arrives just when I start work.

The telephone always rings when I am having a bath.

Use a past tense in the subordinate clause to refer to an earlier action.

I know that I made a mistake.

I know he was a dangerous criminal.

I know exactly what you meant.

They believe that she was a German spy.

Use a present perfect tense in the subordinate clause to talk about an action that occurred at an indefinite point of time in the past.

I believe that I have made the right choice.

She suspects that they have left the country.

Use a future tense in the subordinate clause, to refer to an action that is yet to take place in the future.

The committee says that it will oppose the proposal.

It is unlikely that he will win.

3, Simple Past Tense

Use a simple past in the subordinate clause to talk about another action completed in the past.

He tidied the lounge while I cooked lunch.

I didn't get the job because I lacked the required skills.

The Greek believed that the sun went round the earth.

Use a past perfect tense in the subordinate clause to refer to an earlier action.

She realized that she had made a mistake.

She told me that she had received the parcel.

Use a present tense in the subordinate clause to state a general truth. A past tense is also possible.

Magellan proved that the earth is / was round.

The teacher said that honesty is / was the best policy.

He proved that the earth goes / went round the sun.

4, Present Perfect Tense

Use simple past verb forms in subordinate clauses instead of present perfect tenses.

I have usually liked the people I worked with.

Where have you been since I last saw you?

I haven't seen her since she moved to New York.

The present perfect tense is also possible in a few cases.

I have usually liked the people I have worked with.

5, Past Perfect Tense

Use simple past in the subordinate clause.

She had left before I arrived.

The crowd had turned violent before the police arrived.

6, Future Tense

Use present tenses in the subordinate clauses to refer to the future.

I will write to you when I have time.

We will stay here until the plane takes off.

I won't be surprised if she doesn't recognize him

Practice:

State whether the following statement is correct or incorrect:

I know that he was here.

I know that he is here.

I know that he will be here.

I knew that he would be here.

The teacher said that the sun travels around the earth.

Chapter 3 Pronouns and Nouns 代词和名词

Personal Pronouns Chart

Reflexive Pronoun 反身代词

A reflexive pronoun is a specific type of pronoun that is used for the object of a verb when it refers to the same noun as the subject of that verb.

If the object and the subject of a verb are the same, use a reflexive pronoun for the object. Otherwise, do not use one.

Reflexive pronouns can be both a direct and indirect object.

I hurt myself cutting down the bush. (Direct object)

I bought myself a new car. (Indirect object)

Keep the consistency in the sentence.

❌ I love yourself.

❌ she himself finishes the project.

The reflexive pronouns "herself" and "himself" are used as intensifiers in "she herself" and "he himself," respectively. As "herself" and "himself" work as intensifiers, adding a comma before them will defeat the purpose.

She ensured that the event went smoothly.

🡪 She herself ensured that the event went smoothly.

He wrote the petition for her arrest.

🡪 He himself wrote the petition for her arrest.

Chapter 4 Possessive Determinator (+'s and + s)

Basic Rules

There are two different situations for using + 's

1, used as abbreviation

It's = it is / it has

He's = he is / he has

To avoid confusion, we do not abbreviate "it was" as "it's".

2, used to form the possessive

Singular countable nouns/ uncountable noun: +'s

Paris's, child's

Plural countable nouns (end with "s"): +'

Teachers', cats'

Plural countable nouns (not end with "s"): +'s

Children's

When referencing two or more nouns that are acting together, then the plural possessive form requires adding an apostrophe followed by an "s" to only the last noun. (A and B's C)

Mary and Kelley's room

Chapter 5 Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is a string of words that does not form a complete sentence; there is a necessary component of a complete sentence missing. This missing component may be a subject (usually a noun) or a predicate (verb or verb phrase) and/or when the sentence does not express a complete idea.

Example of a fragment:

❌ Shows no improvement in any of the vital signs.

(Missing a subject)

Revision:

The patient shows no improvement in any of the vital signs.

Here is an example of a fragment with a missing predicate, or action:

Example of a fragment:

❌ The doctors, who were using peer-reviewed research articles that contributed to the body of knowledge in their fields, which was obstetrics. (Missing a predicate)

Revision:

The doctors, who were using peer-reviewed research articles that contributed to the body of knowledge in their field, improved their knowledge of obstetrics.

Chapter 6 Independent / Dependent Clause & Run-on Sentence

A clause is a group of words that has subject and predicate. Every complete sentence is made up of at least one or more clause(s).

John bought a new car. (One sentence, one clause)

John bought a new car, but he is using his old car. (One sentence, two clauses)

Types of Clauses

Clauses come in four types: main (or independent), subordinate (or dependent), adjective (or relative), and noun. Every clause has at least one subject and one verb.

1. Main Clauses (Independent Clause)

Every main clause will follow this pattern:

Subject + Verb = Complete Thought.

She walked.

Lazy students whine.

My dog loves pizza crusts.

Main clauses can be joined by a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) to form complex or compound sentences.

He bought a new car but he is still using an old one.

Cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.

Remember that every sentence must have at least one main clause. Otherwise, you have a fragment, a major error.

2. Subordinate Clauses (Dependent Clause)

A subordinate clause will follow this pattern:

Subordinate Conjunction + Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought.

Whenever lazy students whine

As cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter

Because my dog loves pizza crusts

A dependent clause is joined to an independent clause to form a complex sentence. It often starts with a subordinating conjunction.

3. Adjective Clauses (Relative Clause)

An essential relative (restrictive) clause provides necessary, defining information about the noun. On the other hand, non‐essential (non-restrictive) relative clauses provide additional, non‐necessary information about the noun.

Think of non‐ essential relative clauses as adjectives describing the noun; you can remove adjectives without changing the meaning of the sentence. A relative clause can be introduced by either a relative pronoun or a relative adverb. A relative clause will begin with a relative pronoun (such as who, whom, whose, which, or that) or a relative adverb (when, where, or why).

The type of clause determines what kind of relative pronoun to use. Generally, there are two types of relative clauses: restrictive (defining) clause and non-restrictive (non-defining) clause. In both types of clauses, the relative pronoun can function as a subject, an object, or a possessive pronoun ("whose").

Restrictive Relative Clause

Relative pronouns that introduce a restrictive relative clause ARE NOT separated from the main clause by a comma. Restrictive relative clauses (also known as defining relative clauses) add essential information about the antecedent in the main clause. The information is crucial for understanding the sentence's meaning correctly and cannot be omitted. In other words, without the restrictive relative clause, the sentence does not make sense.

This is the house that had a great Christmas decoration.( Relative pronouns used as a subject)

This is the house where/in which I lived when I first came to the United States. (Relative pronouns used as an object)

The family whose house burnt in the fire was given a complimentary suite in a hotel. (Relative pronouns used as a possessive)

Special Uses of Relative Pronouns

that / who When referring to people, both that and who can be used in informal language. "That" may be used to refer to the characteristics or abilities of an individual or a group of people:

He is the kind of person that/who will never let you down.

I am looking for someone that/who could give me a ride to Chicago.

However, when speaking about a particular person in formal language, who is preferred:

The old lady who lives next door is a teacher.

The girl who wore a red dress attracted everybody's attention at the party.

that / which

There are several cases when that is more appropriate than which:

After the pronouns "all," "any(thing)," "every(thing)," "few," "little," "many," "much," "no(thing)," "none," "some(thing)":

The police usually ask for every detail that helps identify the missing person.

Dessert is all that he wants.

After the noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree:

This is the best resource that I have ever read!

Non-Restrictive Relative Clause

Although similar in use, relative pronouns that introduce a non-restrictive relative clauses ARE separated from the main clause by a comma (in most instances). Typically, "which" is the preferred relative pronoun for indicating that a relative clause is non-restrictive.

Non-restrictive relative clauses (also known as non-defining relative clauses) provide non-essential information about the antecedent in the main clause. The information is not crucial for understanding the sentence's meaning correctly and can be omitted without affecting the sentence's meaning. In other words, non-restrictive relative clauses are an aside that adds extra information.

The science fair, which lasted all day, ended with an awards ceremony.( Relative pronouns used as a subject)

The theater, in which the play debuted, housed 300 people.( Relative pronouns used as an object)

4. Noun Clauses

Any clause that functions as a noun becomes a noun clause.

You really do not want to know the ingredients in Aunt Nancy's stew.

(Ingredients = noun.)

If we replace the noun ingredients with a clause, we have a noun clause:

You really do not want to know what Aunt Nancy adds to her stew.

(What Aunt Nancy adds to her stew = noun clause.)

Run-on Sentences

A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses (also known as complete sentences) are connected improperly.

Common run-on sentences

1, SVO, SVO (comma splice)

2, SVO SVO.

3, SVO, however, SVO.

We can change them to:

🡪 SVO. SVO.

🡪 SVO: SVO.

🡪 SVO – SVO.

🡪 SVO; SVO.

Phrase "for example" in run-on sentences

For example /For instance, SVO.

S, for example, VO.

Take something for example. SVO.

Take something. SVO.

Take something, for example. SVO.

Take, for example, something. SVO.

Consider something for example. SVO.

Taking something for example, SVO.

Take something, for example: SVO.

Others:

Imperative sentences are used to issue a command or instruction, make a request, or offer advice. Basically, they tell people what to do. Imperatives are complete sentences.

Work hard, and you will get a high score.

Enter someone.

Enter committee member John Borland, a geotechnical engineer from England who saved London's clock tower Big Ben from collapse. (OG6)

Chapter 7 Parallelism

[ and ] vs. [ , and ]

When [ and ] is used as a conjunction to link together names, no comma is required.

A and B.

London and Paris are major European cities.

Hemingway and Scott-Fitzgerald were once popular American writers.

Use a [ , and ] (and other coordinating conjunctions such as "but", "or", "nor") when it splits two independent clauses.

SVO, and SVO.

Use [ , and ] when describing a number of objects or listing characteristics.

A, B, and C.

However, dropping a conjunction has the opposite effect of adding a conjunction: creating a series that is not exhaustive, but a mere sampling of possibilities.

This 20th century is bafﬂing, difficult, paradoxical, revolutionary.

He began with the herculean task of staging the entire scene, which involved constructing the furniture, harpsichord, stained glass - everything. (2017/12)

When my sister left Chicago for college in California, I began carting my guitar around everywhere: to school, to work, to friends' houses. (ACT A10)

Use [ , and ] when there is a parenthesis before and.

A, parenthesis, and B.

Broadly speaking, enjoyment smiles are characterized by the engagement of two specific facial muscles: the zygomaticus major, which raises the mouth's corners, and the orbicularis oculi, which raises the cheeks, narrows the eye aperture, and produces wrinkles around the eyes.

Chapter 8 Logical Comparison

Chapter 9 Absolute Construction

Chapter 10 Parenthesis

Chapter 11 Omission

Chapter 12 Modifier

Chapter 13 Precision and Concision

Chapter 14 Formality

Chapter 15 Punctuation

Comma		Period	.	Semicolon	;
Exclamation mark	!	Question mark	?	Colon	:
Quotation mark	" "	Apostrophe	'	Dash	-
Parenthesis	( )	ㅤ	ㅤ	ㅤ	ㅤ

Comma

To separate three or more words or phrases when they are used in series

A, B, and C.

I love SAT, ACT, and GRE.

After introductory elements

Introductory Elements, SVO.

When I took SAT, I was very excited. (When I took SAT is a kind of introductory element)

Increasingly, PAs and other such medical practitioners have become a critical complement to physicians.

Two commas to separate a non-essential clause

S, Non-essential Clause, VO.

Dogs, you see, are pack animals.

Jan, the second of three children, always feels left out.

Before coordinating conjunctions

[ SVO, FANBOYS SVO]

Colon

Semicolon

Chapter 16 Words in context and Collocation

Chapter 17 Expression of Ideas

Addition and Deletion 信息增删题

Logical Sequence 逻辑排序题

Graphs and Data 图表题

Sentence Combination 句子合并题

Goal Question 目的提升题

Transition 逻辑连接题

常见的逻辑关系词分类

ㅤ	并列连词	从属连词	连词性短语	副词/连接副词	副词性短语
举例子	ㅤ	ㅤ	ㅤ	Particularly	For example For instance In particular
因果（前推后）先说明原因，然后推出结果。	SoShe was tired, so she went to bed early.	Because	Given thatProvided that	ThereforeThusThenConsequentlyAccordingly Hence	As a result In turnAs a consequence
因果（后推前）先说明结果，然后推测或解释原因。	ForHe must be hungry, for he hasn't eaten all day.	ㅤ	In that	ㅤ	To this endAfter all
对比（无矛盾）：两部分内容是对立但不矛盾的。意思是，虽然两者存在差异，但它们可以同时成立。"他们不同，但没冲突"	ButI like tea, but she likes coffee.The students were tired after the test, but were happy with their results.Some refugees have found new homes, but others are still living in camps.	WhereasHe loves running marathons, whereas I enjoy slow morning walks.WhileThey sing beautifully, while I just hum quietly.	ㅤ	However(A more formal way to say but )Car prices went up fast. However, motorcycle prices are still the same.ConverselyHe prefers working late; conversely, I start early.	On the other handOn the one hand, the job pays well; on the other hand, the work is difficult.In contrastShe's very shy; in contrast, her sister is outgoing.
转折（有矛盾/出乎意料）：逻辑上的矛盾或意外，即一部分内容和另一部分内容存在冲突或者预期不同的结果。"他们不同，而且有点冲突/矛盾"	But/YetHe studied hard, yet he failed the exam.	whereasAlthoughI managed to fall asleep although we were watching an action movie.ThoughThough Indra waited for almost an hour, his doctor never showed up.Despite That artist is very creative despite her limited resources.	Even thoughThese students already know how to read even though they are still in kindergarten.Even ifEven if nobody supports me, I'll keep going.In spite of That man has saved a lot of money in spite of earning a small salary.In spite of thatDespite the fact that	NeverthelessHe found it difficult; nevertheless, he never gave up.Nonetheless They disagreed; nonetheless, they remained friends.HoweverHe said he'd come early; however, he arrived late.ThoughStill(让步)It's risky; still, I'm willing to try.	ㅤ
时序	ㅤ	ㅤ	ㅤ	FirstNextInitiallyFinallyMeanwhileEventially	At the same time
补充：补全内容，但并不会像递进那样逐步强化逻辑。	ㅤ	ㅤ	As well as	MoreoverFuthermoreBesidesAlsoAdiitionallyThe hotel provides free breakfast. Additionally, there is free Wi-Fi.	In adiitionApart from that What's more
强调：在原句的基础上，加重语气或突显某个点。递进：说明一个观点时，用更强有力的内容来加强论证。	ㅤ	ㅤ	ㅤ	InsteadIndeedShe is smart, indeed, she's the smartest in the class.Rather	In factOn the contraryWhat's moreHe works hard, and what's more, he is always willing to help others.
类比	ㅤ	ㅤ	ㅤ	Likewisesimilarly	By the same tokenOn a similar note
重复或总结	ㅤ	ㅤ	ㅤ	ㅤ	In other wordsIn shortTo sum up

如何区分对比(contrast) 和转折 (concession)

contrast - n. a difference between people or things that are being compared

Contrast 只是前后相反

concession - n. grammar. a clause which begins with "although" or "even though" and which expresses an idea that suggests the opposite of the main part of the sentence.

Concession 前后有逻辑关系. 我们称之为因果的断裂

I used to live in Malaysia, but now I live in Thailand.Even though I live in Malaysia, I work in Thailand.
The first example shows a simple contrast. The first sentence, "I used to live in Malaysia" indicates my previous place of residence. The second part of the sentence, "but now I live in Thailand", shows that I now live in another place. The statement contrasts these two different places: the one where I used to live and the one where I live now.
In the second example, "Even though I live in Malaysia" tells you where I live now. But this sentence contains a surprise for my readers: "I work in Thailand." When the opposing idea is something readers do not expect or that surprises them, we call it concession.

【经典: however 和 nevertheless 的区别】

Nevertheless 前后两句话必须有因果假设关系，⽽ however 则没有这样的硬性要求。⽐如：

我爸爸很聪明，可是我很笨。（有一定的因果关系）

• My father is very intelligent; however, I turned out to be quite dull. • My father is very intelligent; nevertheless, I turned out to be quite dull.

My father is very intelligent; however, I turned out to be quite dull.

My father is very intelligent; nevertheless, I turned out to be quite dull.

我同学很聪明，可是我很笨。（无因果关系，只是简单对比）

• My classmate is very intelligent; however, I am quite dull.

My classmate is very intelligent; however, I am quite dull.

综上，however可以用于简单的对比，也可以用于有因果的转折，但是nevertheless只能是后者。

补充关系和类比关系

补充关系：典型代表词 in addition，furthermore， moreover。补充关系的特点是前后两个信息一定不一样，是两个不同内容的细节或者分论点，但是都是支持某一个claim的。

Daily exercise improves mood. In addition, it helps reduce stress.Reading diverse authors broadens your perspective. Furthermore, discussing their ideas with others builds a deeper understanding.Taking short breaks during study sessions helps keep the mind alert. Moreover, quick review quizzes reinforce what you have learned.

类比关系：典型代表词 likewise， similarly， on a smiler note，by the same token。类比关系前后两个信息也一定不一样，但是他们在逻辑上，或者内容上有相似性。（逻辑上的相似性最难判断）

Some athletes gradually increase running distance over time. Similarly, others who train for swimming competitions extend their practice durations in small increments.He improves his cooking skills by practicing one recipe repeatedly. Likewise, she refines her painting technique by focusing on small details over time.One student studies a little each day to avoid cramming. On a similar note, another student reviews class notes regularly to maintain steady progress.She organizes her files by category. By the same token, he arranges his books by subject.

总而言之，补充关系前后讲的是同一个事情，而类比关系前后讲两个事情，但是有相似点。

高难连接词

Though 既可以做连词，也可以做副词。

Though 做连词的时候连接句子： Though SVO，SVO

【2018/5 亚太】 Though the system is initially expensive and involves an expenditure of energy, CAES has proven to be reliable and economically viable in the long term.

Though 做副词的时候等同于 however。

When movies were introduced at the turn of the twentieth century, some people viewed these motion pictures as novelties, no more than just moving photographs. Georges Mélies, though, saw the potential that film had as a medium for telling meaningful stories enlivened by dramatic effects.

In fact

SVO 1⃣️ . In fact, SVO 2⃣️ .

( SVO 2⃣️ 是对 SVO 1⃣️ 是一种递进、强调关系）

With sea otters to keep the population of sea urchins in check, kelp forests can flourish. In fact, even two years or less of sea otter presence can reduce the sea urchin threat sea urchins in a coastal area

Since one of the fastest growing library services is public access computer use, there is great demand for computer instniction. In fact, many librarians, whose training now includes courses on research and lntemet search methods, teach classes in lntemet navigation, database and software use, and digital information literacy.

Even those of us who work in disparate ﬁelds are able to share advice and help each other brainstorm. In fact, it's the diversity of their talents and experiences that makes my coworking colleagues so valuable.

After all

SVO. After all, SVO. 是一个因果关系，后因前果。

【PSAT】 People often wonder how Stanton takes such professional-looking photographs without any formal training. After all, he is merely a young man walking the streets with a fancy camera when he approaches.

Instead

连接句子的时候，一般instead前面的句子是一个 negative statement 。

【PSAT】 Some detractors argue that it's not necessary to go to what they consider the extremes required for a living building; instead, we advocate taking small steps toward increased energy efficiency.

To this end (To these ends)

To this end (To these ends) 表示为了达到这个目的，说明后面的做了大概率可以得到前面的结果。

Over time, Slow Food has broadened its mission to focus on food that is good, clean, and fair for all. Members assert that food should be flavorful. carrying the properties of a particular region; it should be raised using environmentally sustainable practices that preserve biodiversity; and it should be accessible to all without exploiting the labors of those who produced it. To these ends, Slow Food runs programs that support small-scale producers in marketing regional foods in a world where food corporations threaten to drive them out of the marketplace and homogenize food choices.

Still

Still 连接两个句子表示转折: SVO. Still SVO.

MG is strict. Still, I love her.

One has to consume more caffeine to achieve the same effect and can experience other symptoms upon ceasing. Still, caffeine's potential health benefits appear to be enough to justify or even endorse a habit equivalent to a cup or two of regular brewed coffee per day.

In particular

In particular 的本质就是 For example 。

Mudskippers, just like other fish, spend significant portion of life on land. Its ability to thrive out of the water as well as in it stems largely from certain physical adaptations that are generally not observed in other ﬁsh. In particular, bimodal respiration — the ability to acquire oxygen using gills or through wet skin — sets mudskippers apart from their purely water-based counterparts.

Accordingly

Accordingly 的本质是因果关系。

She explained the rules clearly. Accordingly, everyone followed them without confusion.

Drill 逻辑关系判断练习

SVO1⃣️, however, so SVO2⃣️.

Although SVO1⃣️, SVO2⃣️, but SVO3.

SVO1⃣️. SVO2⃣️, however. Therefore, SVO3⃣️.

SVO1⃣️. When SVO2⃣️, though, SVO3⃣️.

Answer Key：

SVO1⃣️, however, so SVO2⃣️.

1⃣️&上一句相反；1⃣️&2⃣️ 因果关系。

Although SVO1⃣️, SVO2⃣️, but SVO3.

1⃣️&2⃣️ 让步关系；2⃣️&3⃣️ 转折关系。

SVO1⃣️. SVO2⃣️, however. Therefore, SVO3⃣️.

1⃣️&2⃣️ 转折关系；2⃣️&3⃣️ 因果关系。

SVO1⃣️. When SVO2⃣️, though, SVO3⃣️.

1⃣️&3⃣️ 转折关系；2⃣️&3⃣️ 时间关系。

Catalog

Last update: Jul 18, 2025

Hi~~~~~~~

Glad to meet you!

Hope you have a nice day everyday =)